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| We next consider goodness: First, goodness in general. Secondly, the goodness of God. | |
| Circa primum quaeruntur sex. | Under the first head there are six points of inquiry: |
| Primo, utrum bonum et ens sint idem secundum rem. | (1) Whether goodness and being are the same really? |
| Secundo, supposito quod differant ratione tantum, quid sit prius secundum rationem, utrum bonum vel ens. | (2) Granted that they differ only in idea, which is prior in thought? |
| Tertio, supposito quod ens sit prius, utrum omne ens sit bonum. | (3) Granted that being is prior, whether every being is good? |
| Quarto, ad quam causam ratio boni reducatur. | (4) To what cause should goodness be reduced? |
| Quinto, utrum ratio boni consistat in modo, specie et ordine. | (5) Whether goodness consists in mode, species, and order? |
| Sexto, quomodo dividatur bonum in honestum, utile et delectabile. | (6) Whether goodness is divided into the virtuous, the useful, and the pleasant? |
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| Ad primum sic proceditur. Videtur quod bonum differat secundum rem ab ente. Dicit enim Boetius, in libro de Hebdom., intueor in rebus aliud esse quod sunt bona, et aliud esse quod sunt. Ergo bonum et ens differunt secundum rem. | Objection 1: It seems that goodness differs really from being. For Boethius says (De Hebdom.): "I perceive that in nature the fact that things are good is one thing: that they are is another." Therefore goodness and being really differ. |
| Praeterea, nihil informatur seipso. Sed bonum dicitur per informationem entis, ut habetur in commento libri de causis. Ergo bonum differt secundum rem ab ente. | Objection 2: Further, nothing can be its own form. "But that is called good which has the form of being", according to the commentary on De Causis. Therefore goodness differs really from being. |
| Praeterea, bonum suscipit magis et minus. Esse autem non suscipit magis et minus. Ergo bonum differt secundum rem ab ente. | Objection 3: Further, goodness can be more or less. But being cannot be more or less. Therefore goodness differs really from being. |
| Sed contra est quod Augustinus dicit, in libro de doctrina Christiana, quod inquantum sumus, boni sumus. | On the contrary, Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 42) that, "inasmuch as we exist we are good." |
| Respondeo dicendum quod bonum et ens sunt idem secundum rem, sed differunt secundum rationem tantum. Quod sic patet. Ratio enim boni in hoc consistit, quod aliquid sit appetibile, unde philosophus, in I Ethic., dicit quod bonum est quod omnia appetunt. Manifestum est autem quod unumquodque est appetibile secundum quod est perfectum, nam omnia appetunt suam perfectionem. Intantum est autem perfectum unumquodque, inquantum est actu, unde manifestum est quod intantum est aliquid bonum, inquantum est ens, esse enim est actualitas omnis rei, ut ex superioribus patet. Unde manifestum est quod bonum et ens sunt idem secundum rem, sed bonum dicit rationem appetibilis, quam non dicit ens. | I answer that, Goodness and being are really the same, and differ only in idea; which is clear from the following argument. The essence of goodness consists in this, that it is in some way desirable. Hence the Philosopher says (Ethic. i): "Goodness is what all desire." Now it is clear that a thing is desirable only in so far as it is perfect; for all desire their own perfection. But everything is perfect so far as it is actual. Therefore it is clear that a thing is perfect so far as it exists; for it is existence that makes all things actual, as is clear from the foregoing (Question [3], Article [4]; Question [4], Article [1]). Hence it is clear that goodness and being are the same really. But goodness presents the aspect of desirableness, which being does not present. |
| Ad primum ergo dicendum quod, licet bonum et ens sint idem secundum rem, quia tamen differunt secundum rationem, non eodem modo dicitur aliquid ens simpliciter, et bonum simpliciter. Nam cum ens dicat aliquid proprie esse in actu; actus autem proprie ordinem habeat ad potentiam; secundum hoc simpliciter aliquid dicitur ens, secundum quod primo discernitur ab eo quod est in potentia tantum. Hoc autem est esse substantiale rei uniuscuiusque; unde per suum esse substantiale dicitur unumquodque ens simpliciter. Per actus autem superadditos, dicitur aliquid esse secundum quid, sicut esse album significat esse secundum quid, non enim esse album aufert esse in potentia simpliciter, cum adveniat rei iam praeexistenti in actu. Sed bonum dicit rationem perfecti, quod est appetibile, et per consequens dicit rationem ultimi. Unde id quod est ultimo perfectum, dicitur bonum simpliciter. Quod autem non habet ultimam perfectionem quam debet habere, quamvis habeat aliquam perfectionem inquantum est actu, non tamen dicitur perfectum simpliciter, nec bonum simpliciter, sed secundum quid. Sic ergo secundum primum esse, quod est substantiale, dicitur aliquid ens simpliciter et bonum secundum quid, idest inquantum est ens, secundum vero ultimum actum dicitur aliquid ens secundum quid, et bonum simpliciter. Sic ergo quod dicit Boetius, quod in rebus aliud est quod sunt bona, et aliud quod sunt, referendum est ad esse bonum et ad esse simpliciter, quia secundum primum actum est aliquid ens simpliciter; et secundum ultimum, bonum simpliciter. Et tamen secundum primum actum est quodammodo bonum, et secundum ultimum actum est quodammodo ens. | Reply to Objection 1: Although goodness and being are the same really, nevertheless since they differ in thought, they are not predicated of a thing absolutely in the same way. Since being properly signifies that something actually is, and actuality properly correlates to potentiality; a thing is, in consequence, said simply to have being, accordingly as it is primarily distinguished from that which is only in potentiality; and this is precisely each thing's substantial being. Hence by its substantial being, everything is said to have being simply; but by any further actuality it is said to have being relatively. Thus to be white implies relative being, for to be white does not take a thing out of simply potential being; because only a thing that actually has being can receive this mode of being. But goodness signifies perfection which is desirable; and consequently of ultimate perfection. Hence that which has ultimate perfection is said to be simply good; but that which has not the ultimate perfection it ought to have (although, in so far as it is at all actual, it has some perfection), is not said to be perfect simply nor good simply, but only relatively. In this way, therefore, viewed in its primal (i.e. substantial) being a thing is said to be simply, and to be good relatively (i.e. in so far as it has being) but viewed in its complete actuality, a thing is said to be relatively, and to be good simply. Hence the saying of Boethius (De Hebrom.), "I perceive that in nature the fact that things are good is one thing; that they are is another," is to be referred to a thing's goodness simply, and having being simply. Because, regarded in its primal actuality, a thing simply exists; and regarded in its complete actuality, it is good simply—in such sort that even in its primal actuality, it is in some sort good, and even in its complete actuality, it in some sort has being. |
| Ad secundum dicendum quod bonum dicitur per informationem, prout accipitur bonum simpliciter, secundum ultimum actum. | Reply to Objection 2: Goodness is a form so far as absolute goodness signifies complete actuality. |
| Et similiter dicendum ad tertium, quod bonum dicitur secundum magis et minus, secundum actum supervenientem; puta secundum scientiam vel virtutem. | Reply to Objection 3: Again, goodness is spoken of as more or less according to a thing's superadded actuality, for example, as to knowledge or virtue. |
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| Ad secundum sic proceditur. Videtur quod bonum secundum rationem sit prius quam ens. Ordo enim nominum est secundum ordinem rerum significatarum per nomina. Sed Dionysius, inter alia nomina Dei, prius ponit bonum quam ens, ut patet, in III cap. de Div. Nom. Ergo bonum secundum rationem est prius quam ens. | Objection 1: It seems that goodness is prior in idea to being. For names are arranged according to the arrangement of the things signified by the names. But Dionysius (Div. Nom. iii) assigned the first place, amongst the other names of God, to His goodness rather than to His being. Therefore in idea goodness is prior to being. |
| Praeterea, illud est prius secundum rationem, quod ad plura se extendit. Sed bonum ad plura se extendit quam ens, quia, ut dicit Dionysius, V cap. de Div. Nom., bonum se extendit ad existentia et non existentia, ens vero ad existentia tantum. Ergo bonum est prius secundum rationem quam ens. | Objection 2: Further, that which is the more extensive is prior in idea. But goodness is more extensive than being, because, as Dionysius notes (Div. Nom. v), "goodness extends to things both existing and non-existing; whereas existence extends to existing things alone." Therefore goodness is in idea prior to being. |
| Praeterea, quod est universalius, est prius secundum rationem. Sed bonum videtur universalius esse quam ens, quia bonum habet rationem appetibilis; quibusdam autem appetibile est ipsum non esse; dicitur enim, Matth. XXVI, de Iuda, bonum erat ei, si natus non fuisset et cetera. Ergo bonum est prius quam ens, secundum rationem. | Objection 3: Further, what is the more universal is prior in idea. But goodness seems to be more universal than being, since goodness has the aspect of desirable; whereas to some non-existence is desirable; for it is said of Judas: "It were better for him, if that man had not been born" (Mt. 26:24). Therefore in idea goodness is prior to being. |
| Praeterea, non solum esse est appetibile, sed et vita et sapientia, et multa huiusmodi, et sic videtur quod esse sit quoddam particulare appetibile, et bonum, universale. Bonum ergo simpliciter est prius secundum rationem quam ens. | Objection 4: Further, not only is existence desirable, but life, knowledge, and many other things besides. Thus it seems that existence is a particular appetible, and goodness a universal appetible. Therefore, absolutely, goodness is prior in idea to being. |
| Sed contra est quod dicitur in libro de causis, quod prima rerum creatarum est esse. | On the contrary, It is said in the book De Causis that "the first of created things is being." |
| Respondeo dicendum quod ens secundum rationem est prius quam bonum. Ratio enim significata per nomen, est id quod concipit intellectus de re, et significat illud per vocem, illud ergo est prius secundum rationem, quod prius cadit in conceptione intellectus. Primo autem in conceptione intellectus cadit ens, quia secundum hoc unumquodque cognoscibile est, inquantum est actu, ut dicitur in IX Metaphys. Unde ens est proprium obiectum intellectus, et sic est primum intelligibile, sicut sonus est primum audibile. Ita ergo secundum rationem prius est ens quam bonum. | I answer that, In idea being is prior to goodness. For the meaning signified by the name of a thing is that which the mind conceives of the thing and intends by the word that stands for it. Therefore, that is prior in idea, which is first conceived by the intellect. Now the first thing conceived by the intellect is being; because everything is knowable only inasmuch as it is in actuality. Hence, being is the proper object of the intellect, and is primarily intelligible; as sound is that which is primarily audible. Therefore in idea being is prior to goodness. |
| Ad primum ergo dicendum quod Dionysius determinat de divinis nominibus secundum quod important circa Deum habitudinem causae, nominamus enim Deum, ut ipse dicit, ex creaturis, sicut causam ex effectibus. Bonum autem, cum habeat rationem appetibilis, importat habitudinem causae finalis, cuius causalitas prima est, quia agens non agit nisi propter finem, et ab agente materia movetur ad formam, unde dicitur quod finis est causa causarum. Et sic, in causando, bonum est prius quam ens, sicut finis quam forma, et hac ratione, inter nomina significantia causalitatem divinam, prius ponitur bonum quam ens. Et iterum quia, secundum Platonicos, qui, materiam a privatione non distinguentes, dicebant materiam esse non ens, ad plura se extendit participatio boni quam participatio entis. Nam materia prima participat bonum, cum appetat ipsum (nihil autem appetit nisi simile sibi), non autem participat ens, cum ponatur non ens. Et ideo dicit Dionysius quod bonum extenditur ad non existentia. | Reply to Objection 1: Dionysius discusses the Divine Names (Div. Nom. i, iii) as implying some causal relation in God; for we name God, as he says, from creatures, as a cause from its effects. But goodness, since it has the aspect of desirable, implies the idea of a final cause, the causality of which is first among causes, since an agent does not act except for some end; and by an agent matter is moved to its form. Hence the end is called the cause of causes. Thus goodness, as a cause, is prior to being, as is the end to the form. Therefore among the names signifying the divine causality, goodness precedes being. Again, according to the Platonists, who, through not distinguishing primary matter from privation, said that matter was non-being, goodness is more extensively participated than being; for primary matter participates in goodness as tending to it, for all seek their like; but it does not participate in being, since it is presumed to be non-being. Therefore Dionysius says that "goodness extends to non-existence" (Div. Nom. v). |
| Unde patet solutio ad secundum. Vel dicendum quod bonum extenditur ad existentia et non existentia, non secundum praedicationem, sed secundum causalitatem, ut per non existentia intelligamus, non ea simpliciter quae penitus non sunt, sed ea quae sunt in potentia et non in actu, quia bonum habet rationem finis, in quo non solum quiescunt quae sunt in actu, sed ad ipsum etiam ea moventur quae in actu non sunt sed in potentia tantum. Ens autem non importat habitudinem causae nisi formalis tantum, vel inhaerentis vel exemplaris, cuius causalitas non se extendit nisi ad ea quae sunt in actu. | Reply to Objection 2: The same solution is applied to this objection. Or it may be said that goodness extends to existing and non-existing things, not so far as it can be predicated of them, but so far as it can cause them—if, indeed, by non-existence we understand not simply those things which do not exist, but those which are potential, and not actual. For goodness has the aspect of the end, in which not only actual things find their completion, but also towards which tend even those things which are not actual, but merely potential. Now being implies the habitude of a formal cause only, either inherent or exemplar; and its causality does not extend save to those things which are actual. |
| Ad tertium dicendum quod non esse secundum se non est appetibile, sed per accidens, inquantum scilicet ablatio alicuius mali est appetibilis, quod malum quidem aufertur per non esse. Ablatio vero mali non est appetibilis, nisi inquantum per malum privatur quodam esse. Illud igitur quod per se est appetibile, est esse, non esse vero per accidens tantum, inquantum scilicet quoddam esse appetitur, quo homo non sustinet privari. Et sic etiam per accidens non esse dicitur bonum. | Reply to Objection 3: Non-being is desirable, not of itself, but only relatively—i.e. inasmuch as the removal of an evil, which can only be removed by non-being, is desirable. Now the removal of an evil cannot be desirable, except so far as this evil deprives a thing of some being. Therefore being is desirable of itself; and non-being only relatively, inasmuch as one seeks some mode of being of which one cannot bear to be deprived; thus even non-being can be spoken of as relatively good. |
| Ad quartum dicendum quod vita et scientia, et alia huiusmodi, sic appetuntur ut sunt in actu, unde in omnibus appetitur quoddam esse. Et sic nihil est appetibile nisi ens, et per consequens nihil est bonum nisi ens. | Reply to Objection 4: Life, wisdom, and the like, are desirable only so far as they are actual. Hence, in each one of them some sort of being is desired. And thus nothing can be desired except being; and consequently nothing is good except being. |
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| Ad tertium sic proceditur. Videtur quod non omne ens sit bonum. Bonum enim addit supra ens, ut ex dictis patet. Ea vero quae addunt aliquid supra ens, contrahunt ipsum, sicut substantia, quantitas, qualitas, et alia huiusmodi. Ergo bonum contrahit ens. Non igitur omne ens est bonum. | Objection 1: It seems that not every being is good. For goodness is something superadded to being, as is clear from Article [1]. But whatever is added to being limits it; as substance, quantity, quality, etc. Therefore goodness limits being. Therefore not every being is good. |
| Praeterea, nullum malum est bonum, Isaiae V, vae qui dicitis malum bonum, et bonum malum. Sed aliquod ens dicitur malum. Ergo non omne ens est bonum. | Objection 2: Further, no evil is good: "Woe to you that call evil good and good evil" (Is. 5:20). But some things are called evil. Therefore not every being is good. |
| Praeterea, bonum habet rationem appetibilis. Sed materia prima non habet rationem appetibilis, sed appetentis tantum. Ergo materia prima non habet rationem boni. Non igitur omne ens est bonum. | Objection 3: Further, goodness implies desirability. Now primary matter does not imply desirability, but rather that which desires. Therefore primary matter does not contain the formality of goodness. Therefore not every being is good. |
| Praeterea, philosophus dicit, in III Metaphys., quod in mathematicis non est bonum. Sed mathematica sunt quaedam entia, alioquin de eis non esset scientia. Ergo non omne ens est bonum. | Objection 4: Further, the Philosopher notes (Metaph. iii) that "in mathematics goodness does not exist." But mathematics are entities; otherwise there would be no science of mathematics. Therefore not every being is good. |
| Sed contra, omne ens quod non est Deus, est Dei creatura. Sed omnis creatura Dei est bona, ut dicitur I ad Tim., IV cap., Deus vero est maxime bonus. Ergo omne ens est bonum. | On the contrary, Every being that is not God is God's creature. Now every creature of God is good (1 Tim. 4:4): and God is the greatest good. Therefore every being is good. |
| Respondeo dicendum quod omne ens, inquantum est ens, est bonum. Omne enim ens, inquantum est ens, est in actu, et quodammodo perfectum, quia omnis actus perfectio quaedam est. Perfectum vero habet rationem appetibilis et boni, ut ex dictis patet. Unde sequitur omne ens, inquantum huiusmodi, bonum esse. | I answer that, Every being, as being, is good. For all being, as being, has actuality and is in some way perfect; since every act implies some sort of perfection; and perfection implies desirability and goodness, as is clear from Article [1]. Hence it follows that every being as such is good. |
| Ad primum ergo dicendum quod substantia, quantitas et qualitas, et ea quae sub eis continentur, contrahunt ens applicando ens ad aliquam quidditatem seu naturam. Sic autem non addit aliquid bonum super ens, sed rationem tantum appetibilis et perfectionis, quod convenit ipsi esse in quacumque natura sit. Unde bonum non contrahit ens. | Reply to Objection 1: Substance, quantity, quality, and everything included in them, limit being by applying it to some essence or nature. Now in this sense, goodness does not add anything to being beyond the aspect of desirability and perfection, which is also proper to being, whatever kind of nature it may be. Hence goodness does not limit being. |
| Ad secundum dicendum quod nullum ens dicitur malum inquantum est ens, sed inquantum caret quodam esse, sicut homo dicitur malus inquantum caret esse virtutis, et oculus dicitur malus inquantum caret acumine visus. | Reply to Objection 2: No being can be spoken of as evil, formally as being, but only so far as it lacks being. Thus a man is said to be evil, because he lacks some virtue; and an eye is said to be evil, because it lacks the power to see well. |
| Ad tertium dicendum quod materia prima, sicut non est ens nisi in potentia, ita nec bonum nisi in potentia. Licet, secundum Platonicos, dici possit quod materia prima est non ens, propter privationem adiunctam. Sed tamen participat aliquid de bono, scilicet ipsum ordinem vel aptitudinem ad bonum. Et ideo non convenit sibi quod sit appetibile, sed quod appetat. | Reply to Objection 3: As primary matter has only potential being, so it is only potentially good. Although, according to the Platonists, primary matter may be said to be a non-being on account of the privation attaching to it, nevertheless, it does participate to a certain extent in goodness, viz. by its relation to, or aptitude for, goodness. Consequently, to be desirable is not its property, but to desire. |
| Ad quartum dicendum quod mathematica non subsistunt separata secundum esse, quia si subsisterent, esset in eis bonum, scilicet ipsum esse ipsorum. Sunt autem mathematica separata secundum rationem tantum, prout abstrahuntur a motu et a materia, et sic abstrahuntur a ratione finis, qui habet rationem moventis. Non est autem inconveniens quod in aliquo ente secundum rationem non sit bonum vel ratio boni, cum ratio entis sit prior quam ratio boni, sicut supra dictum est. | Reply to Objection 4: Mathematical entities do not subsist as realities; because they would be in some sort good if they subsisted; but they have only logical existence, inasmuch as they are abstracted from motion and matter; thus they cannot have the aspect of an end, which itself has the aspect of moving another. Nor is it repugnant that there should be in some logical entity neither goodness nor form of goodness; since the idea of being is prior to the idea of goodness, as was said in the preceding article. |
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| Ad quartum sic proceditur. Videtur quod bonum non habeat rationem causae finalis, sed magis aliarum. Ut enim dicit Dionysius, IV cap. de Div. Nom., bonum laudatur ut pulchrum. Sed pulchrum importat rationem causae formalis. Ergo bonum habet rationem causae formalis. | Objection 1: It seems that goodness has not the aspect of a final cause, but rather of the other causes. For, as Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv), "Goodness is praised as beauty." But beauty has the aspect of a formal cause. Therefore goodness has the aspect of a formal cause. |
| Praeterea, bonum est diffusivum sui esse, ut ex verbis Dionysii accipitur, quibus dicit quod bonum est ex quo omnia subsistunt et sunt. Sed esse diffusivum importat rationem causae efficientis. Ergo bonum habet rationem causae efficientis. | Objection 2: Further, goodness is self-diffusive; for Dionysius says (Div. Nom. iv) that goodness is that whereby all things subsist, and are. But to be self-giving implies the aspect of an efficient cause. Therefore goodness has the aspect of an efficient cause. |
| Praeterea, dicit Augustinus in I de Doctr. Christ., quod quia Deus bonus est, nos sumus. Sed ex Deo sumus sicut ex causa efficiente. Ergo bonum importat rationem causae efficientis. | Objection 3: Further, Augustine says (De Doctr. Christ. i, 31) that "we exist because God is good." But we owe our existence to God as the efficient cause. Therefore goodness implies the aspect of an efficient cause. |
| Sed contra est quod philosophus dicit, in II Physic., quod illud cuius causa est, est sicut finis et bonum aliorum. Bonum ergo habet rationem causae finalis. | On the contrary, The Philosopher says (Phys. ii) that "that is to be considered as the end and the good of other things, for the sake of which something is." Therefore goodness has the aspect of a final cause. |
| Respondeo dicendum quod, cum bonum sit quod omnia appetunt, hoc autem habet rationem finis; manifestum est quod bonum rationem finis importat. Sed tamen ratio boni praesupponit rationem causae efficientis, et rationem causae formalis. Videmus enim quod id quod est primum in causando, ultimum est in causato, ignis enim primo calefacit quam formam ignis inducat, cum tamen calor in igne consequatur formam substantialem. In causando autem, primum invenitur bonum et finis, qui movet efficientem; secundo, actio efficientis, movens ad formam; tertio advenit forma. Unde e converso esse oportet in causato, quod primum sit ipsa forma, per quam est ens; secundo consideratur in ea virtus effectiva, secundum quod est perfectum in esse (quia unumquodque tunc perfectum est, quando potest sibi simile facere, ut dicit philosophus in IV Meteor.); tertio consequitur ratio boni, per quam in ente perfectio fundatur. | I answer that, Since goodness is that which all things desire, and since this has the aspect of an end, it is clear that goodness implies the aspect of an end. Nevertheless, the idea of goodness presupposes the idea of an efficient cause, and also of a formal cause. For we see that what is first in causing, is last in the thing caused. Fire, e.g. heats first of all before it reproduces the form of fire; though the heat in the fire follows from its substantial form. Now in causing, goodness and the end come first, both of which move the agent to act; secondly, the action of the agent moving to the form; thirdly, comes the form. Hence in that which is caused the converse ought to take place, so that there should be first, the form whereby it is a being; secondly, we consider in it its effective power, whereby it is perfect in being, for a thing is perfect when it can reproduce its like, as the Philosopher says (Meteor. iv); thirdly, there follows the formality of goodness which is the basic principle of its perfection. |
| Ad primum ergo dicendum quod pulchrum et bonum in subiecto quidem sunt idem, quia super eandem rem fundantur, scilicet super formam, et propter hoc, bonum laudatur ut pulchrum. Sed ratione differunt. Nam bonum proprie respicit appetitum, est enim bonum quod omnia appetunt. Et ideo habet rationem finis, nam appetitus est quasi quidam motus ad rem. Pulchrum autem respicit vim cognoscitivam, pulchra enim dicuntur quae visa placent. Unde pulchrum in debita proportione consistit, quia sensus delectatur in rebus debite proportionatis, sicut in sibi similibus; nam et sensus ratio quaedam est, et omnis virtus cognoscitiva. Et quia cognitio fit per assimilationem, similitudo autem respicit formam, pulchrum proprie pertinet ad rationem causae formalis. | Reply to Objection 1: Beauty and goodness in a thing are identical fundamentally; for they are based upon the same thing, namely, the form; and consequently goodness is praised as beauty. But they differ logically, for goodness properly relates to the appetite (goodness being what all things desire); and therefore it has the aspect of an end (the appetite being a kind of movement towards a thing). On the other hand, beauty relates to the cognitive faculty; for beautiful things are those which please when seen. Hence beauty consists in due proportion; for the senses delight in things duly proportioned, as in what is after their own kind—because even sense is a sort of reason, just as is every cognitive faculty. Now since knowledge is by assimilation, and similarity relates to form, beauty properly belongs to the nature of a formal cause. |
| Ad secundum dicendum quod bonum dicitur diffusivum sui esse, eo modo quo finis dicitur movere. | Reply to Objection 2: Goodness is described as self-diffusive in the sense that an end is said to move. |
| Ad tertium dicendum quod quilibet habens voluntatem, dicitur bonus inquantum habet bonam voluntatem, quia per voluntatem utimur omnibus quae in nobis sunt. Unde non dicitur bonus homo, qui habet bonum intellectum, sed qui habet bonam voluntatem. Voluntas autem respicit finem ut obiectum proprium, et sic, quod dicitur, quia Deus est bonus, sumus, refertur ad causam finalem. | Reply to Objection 3: He who has a will is said to be good, so far as he has a good will; because it is by our will that we employ whatever powers we may have. Hence a man is said to be good, not by his good understanding; but by his good will. Now the will relates to the end as to its proper object. Thus the saying, "we exist because God is good" has reference to the final cause. |
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Question: 5 [<< | >>]
Article: 5 [<< | >>]
| Ad quintum sic proceditur. Videtur quod ratio boni non consistat in modo, specie et ordine. Bonum enim et ens ratione differunt, ut supra dictum est. Sed modus, species et ordo pertinere ad rationem entis videntur, quia, sicut dicitur Sap. XI, omnia in numero, pondere et mensura disposuisti, ad quae tria reducuntur species, modus et ordo, quia, ut dicit Augustinus, IV super Gen. ad litteram, mensura omni rei modum praefigit, et numerus omni rei speciem praebet, et pondus omnem rem ad quietem et stabilitatem trahit. Ergo ratio boni non consistit in modo, specie et ordine. | Objection 1: It seems that the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. For goodness and being differ logically. But mode, species and order seem to belong to the nature of being, for it is written: "Thou hast ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight" (Wis. 11:21). And to these three can be reduced species, mode and order, as Augustine says (Gen. ad lit. iv, 3): "Measure fixes the mode of everything, number gives it its species, and weight gives it rest and stability." Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. |
| Praeterea, ipse modus, species et ordo bona quaedam sunt. Si ergo ratio boni consistit in modo, specie et ordine, oportet etiam quod modus habeat modum, speciem et ordinem, et similiter species et ordo. Ergo procederetur in infinitum. | Objection 2: Further, mode, species and order are themselves good. Therefore if the essence of goodness consists in mode, species and order, then every mode must have its own mode, species and order. The same would be the case with species and order in endless succession. |
| Praeterea, malum est privatio modi et speciei et ordinis. Sed malum non tollit totaliter bonum. Ergo ratio boni non consistit in modo, specie et ordine. | Objection 3: Further, evil is the privation of mode, species and order. But evil is not the total absence of goodness. Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. |
| Praeterea, illud in quo consistit ratio boni, non potest dici malum. Sed dicitur malus modus, mala species, malus ordo. Ergo ratio boni non consistit in modo, specie et ordine. | Objection 4: Further, that wherein consists the essence of goodness cannot be spoken of as evil. Yet we can speak of an evil mode, species and order. Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. |
| Praeterea, modus, species et ordo ex pondere, numero et mensura causantur, ut ex auctoritate Augustini inducta patet. Non autem omnia bona habent pondus, numerum et mensuram, dicit enim Ambrosius, in Hexaemeron, quod lucis natura est, ut non in numero, non in pondere, non in mensura creata sit. Non ergo ratio boni consistit in modo, specie et ordine. | Objection 5: Further, mode, species and order are caused by weight, number and measure, as appears from the quotation from Augustine. But not every good thing has weight, number and measure; for Ambrose says (Hexam. i, 9): "It is of the nature of light not to have been created in number, weight and measure." Therefore the essence of goodness does not consist in mode, species and order. |
| Sed contra est quod dicit Augustinus, in libro de natura boni, haec tria, modus, species et ordo, tanquam generalia bona sunt in rebus a Deo factis, et ita, haec tria ubi magna sunt, magna bona sunt; ubi parva, parva bona sunt; ubi nulla, nullum bonum est. Quod non esset, nisi ratio boni in eis consisteret. Ergo ratio boni consistit in modo, specie et ordine. | On the contrary, Augustine says (De Nat. Boni. iii): "These three—mode, species and order—as common good things, are in everything God has made; thus, where these three abound the things are very good; where they are less, the things are less good; where they do not exist at all, there can be nothing good." But this would not be unless the essence of goodness consisted in them. Therefore the essence of goodness consists in mode, species and order. |
| Respondeo dicendum quod unumquodque dicitur bonum, inquantum est perfectum, sic enim est appetibile, ut supra dictum est. Perfectum autem dicitur, cui nihil deest secundum modum suae perfectionis. Cum autem unumquodque sit id quod est, per suam formam; forma autem praesupponit quaedam, et quaedam ad ipsam ex necessitate consequuntur; ad hoc quod aliquid sit perfectum et bonum, necesse est quod formam habeat, et ea quae praeexiguntur ad eam, et ea quae consequuntur ad ipsam. Praeexigitur autem ad formam determinatio sive commensuratio principiorum, seu materialium, seu efficientium ipsam, et hoc significatur per modum, unde dicitur quod mensura modum praefigit. Ipsa autem forma significatur per speciem, quia per formam unumquodque in specie constituitur. Et propter hoc dicitur quod numerus speciem praebet, quia definitiones significantes speciem sunt sicut numeri, secundum philosophum in VIII Metaphys.; sicut enim unitas addita vel subtracta variat speciem numeri, ita in definitionibus differentia apposita vel subtracta. Ad formam autem consequitur inclinatio ad finem, aut ad actionem, aut ad aliquid huiusmodi, quia unumquodque, inquantum est actu, agit, et tendit in id quod sibi convenit secundum suam formam. Et hoc pertinet ad pondus et ordinem. Unde ratio boni, secundum quod consistit in perfectione, consistit etiam in modo, specie et ordine. | I answer that, Everything is said to be good so far as it is perfect; for in that way only is it desirable (as shown above Articles [1],3). Now a thing is said to be perfect if it lacks nothing according to the mode of its perfection. But since everything is what it is by its form (and since the form presupposes certain things, and from the form certain things necessarily follow), in order for a thing to be perfect and good it must have a form, together with all that precedes and follows upon that form. Now the form presupposes determination or commensuration of its principles, whether material or efficient, and this is signified by the mode: hence it is said that the measure marks the mode. But the form itself is signified by the species; for everything is placed in its species by its form. Hence the number is said to give the species, for definitions signifying species are like numbers, according to the Philosopher (Metaph. x); for as a unit added to, or taken from a number, changes its species, so a difference added to, or taken from a definition, changes its species. Further, upon the form follows an inclination to the end, or to an action, or something of the sort; for everything, in so far as it is in act, acts and tends towards that which is in accordance with its form; and this belongs to weight and order. Hence the essence of goodness, so far as it consists in perfection, consists also in mode, species and order. |
| Ad primum ergo dicendum quod ista tria non consequuntur ens, nisi inquantum est perfectum, et secundum hoc est bonum. | Reply to Objection 1: These three only follow upon being, so far as it is perfect, and according to this perfection is it good. |
| Ad secundum dicendum quod modus, species et ordo eo modo dicuntur bona, sicut et entia, non quia ipsa sint quasi subsistentia, sed quia eis alia sunt et entia et bona. Unde non oportet quod ipsa habeant aliqua alia, quibus sint bona. Non enim sic dicuntur bona, quasi formaliter aliis sint bona; sed quia ipsis formaliter aliqua sunt bona; sicut albedo non dicitur ens quia ipsa aliquo sit, sed quia ipsa aliquid est secundum quid, scilicet album. | Reply to Objection 2: Mode, species and order are said to be good, and to be beings, not as though they themselves were subsistences, but because it is through them that other things are both beings and good. Hence they have no need of other things whereby they are good: for they are spoken of as good, not as though formally constituted so by something else, but as formally constituting others good: thus whiteness is not said to be a being as though it were by anything else; but because, by it, something else has accidental being, as an object that is white. |
| Ad tertium dicendum quod quodlibet esse est secundum formam aliquam, unde secundum quodlibet esse rei, consequuntur ipsam modus, species et ordo, sicut homo habet speciem, modum et ordinem, inquantum est homo; et similiter inquantum est albus, habet similiter modum, speciem et ordinem; et inquantum est virtuosus, et inquantum est sciens, et secundum omnia quae de ipso dicuntur. Malum autem privat quodam esse, sicut caecitas privat esse visus, unde non tollit omnem modum, speciem et ordinem; sed solum modum, speciem et ordinem quae consequuntur esse visus. | Reply to Objection 3: Every being is due to some form. Hence, according to every being of a thing is its mode, species, order. Thus, a man has a mode, species and order as he is white, virtuous, learned and so on; according to everything predicated of him. But evil deprives a thing of some sort of being, as blindness deprives us of that being which is sight; yet it does not destroy every mode, species and order, but only such as follow upon the being of sight. |
| Ad quartum dicendum quod, sicut dicit Augustinus in libro de natura boni, omnis modus, inquantum modus, bonus est (et sic potest dici de specie et ordine), sed malus modus, vel mala species, vel malus ordo, aut ideo dicuntur quia minora sunt quam esse debuerunt; aut quia non his rebus accommodantur, quibus accommodanda sunt; ut ideo dicantur mala, quia sunt aliena et incongrua. | Reply to Objection 4: Augustine says (De Nat. Boni. xxiii), "Every mode, as mode, is good" (and the same can be said of species and order). "But an evil mode, species and order are so called as being less than they ought to be, or as not belonging to that which they ought to belong. Therefore they are called evil, because they are out of place and incongruous." |
| Ad quintum dicendum quod natura lucis dicitur esse sine numero et pondere et mensura, non simpliciter, sed per comparationem ad corporalia, quia virtus lucis ad omnia corporalia se extendit, inquantum est qualitas activa primi corporis alterantis, scilicet caeli. | Reply to Objection 5: The nature of light is spoken of as being without number, weight and measure, not absolutely, but in comparison with corporeal things, because the power of light extends to all corporeal things; inasmuch as it is an active quality of the first body that causes change, i.e. the heavens. |
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Question: 5 [<< | >>]
Article: 6 [<< | >>]
| Ad sextum sic proceditur. Videtur quod non convenienter dividatur bonum per honestum, utile et delectabile. Bonum enim, sicut dicit philosophus in I Ethic., dividitur per decem praedicamenta. Honestum autem, utile et delectabile inveniri possunt in uno praedicamento. Ergo non convenienter per haec dividitur bonum. | Objection 1: It seems that goodness is not rightly divided into the virtuous, the useful and the pleasant. For goodness is divided by the ten predicaments, as the Philosopher says (Ethic. i). But the virtuous, the useful and the pleasant can be found under one predicament. Therefore goodness is not rightly divided by them. |
| Praeterea, omnis divisio fit per opposita. Sed haec tria non videntur esse opposita, nam honesta sunt delectabilia, nullumque inhonestum est utile (quod tamen oportet, si divisio fieret per opposita, ut opponerentur honestum et utile), ut etiam dicit Tullius, in libro de officiis. Ergo praedicta divisio non est conveniens. | Objection 2: Further, every division is made by opposites. But these three do not seem to be opposites; for the virtuous is pleasing, and no wickedness is useful; whereas this ought to be the case if the division were made by opposites, for then the virtuous and the useful would be opposed; and Tully speaks of this (De Offic. ii). Therefore this division is incorrect. |
| Praeterea, ubi unum propter alterum, ibi unum tantum est. Sed utile non est bonum nisi propter delectabile vel honestum. Ergo non debet utile dividi contra delectabile et honestum. | Objection 3: Further, where one thing is on account of another, there is only one thing. But the useful is not goodness, except so far as it is pleasing and virtuous. Therefore the useful ought not to divided against the pleasant and the virtuous. |
| Sed contra est quod Ambrosius, in libro de officiis, utitur ista divisione boni. | On the contrary, Ambrose makes use of this division of goodness (De Offic. i, 9) |
| Respondeo dicendum quod haec divisio proprie videtur esse boni humani. Si tamen altius et communius rationem boni consideremus, invenitur haec divisio proprie competere bono, secundum quod bonum est. Nam bonum est aliquid, inquantum est appetibile, et terminus motus appetitus. Cuius quidem motus terminatio considerari potest ex consideratione motus corporis naturalis. Terminatur autem motus corporis naturalis, simpliciter quidem ad ultimum; secundum quid autem etiam ad medium, per quod itur ad ultimum quod terminat motum, et dicitur aliquis terminus motus, inquantum aliquam partem motus terminat. Id autem quod est ultimus terminus motus, potest accipi dupliciter, vel ipsa res in quam tenditur, utpote locus vel forma; vel quies in re illa. Sic ergo in motu appetitus, id quod est appetibile terminans motum appetitus secundum quid, ut medium per quod tenditur in aliud, vocatur utile. Id autem quod appetitur ut ultimum, terminans totaliter motum appetitus, sicut quaedam res in quam per se appetitus tendit, vocatur honestum, quia honestum dicitur quod per se desideratur. Id autem quod terminat motum appetitus ut quies in re desiderata, est delectatio. | I answer that, This division properly concerns human goodness. But if we consider the nature of goodness from a higher and more universal point of view, we shall find that this division properly concerns goodness as such. For everything is good so far as it is desirable, and is a term of the movement of the appetite; the term of whose movement can be seen from a consideration of the movement of a natural body. Now the movement of a natural body is terminated by the end absolutely; and relatively by the means through which it comes to the end, where the movement ceases; so a thing is called a term of movement, so far as it terminates any part of that movement. Now the ultimate term of movement can be taken in two ways, either as the thing itself towards which it tends, e.g. a place or form; or a state of rest in that thing. Thus, in the movement of the appetite, the thing desired that terminates the movement of the appetite relatively, as a means by which something tends towards another, is called the useful; but that sought after as the last thing absolutely terminating the movement of the appetite, as a thing towards which for its own sake the appetite tends, is called the virtuous; for the virtuous is that which is desired for its own sake; but that which terminates the movement of the appetite in the form of rest in the thing desired, is called the pleasant. |
| Ad primum ergo dicendum quod bonum, inquantum est idem subiecto cum ente, dividitur per decem praedicamenta, sed secundum propriam rationem, competit sibi ista divisio. | Reply to Objection 1: Goodness, so far as it is identical with being, is divided by the ten predicaments. But this division belongs to it according to its proper formality. |
| Ad secundum dicendum quod haec divisio non est per oppositas res, sed per oppositas rationes. Dicuntur tamen illa proprie delectabilia, quae nullam habent aliam rationem appetibilitatis nisi delectationem, cum aliquando sint et noxia et inhonesta. Utilia vero dicuntur, quae non habent in se unde desiderentur; sed desiderantur solum ut sunt ducentia in alterum, sicut sumptio medicinae amarae. Honesta vero dicuntur, quae in seipsis habent unde desiderentur. | Reply to Objection 2: This division is not by opposite things; but by opposite aspects. Now those things are called pleasing which have no other formality under which they are desirable except the pleasant, being sometimes hurtful and contrary to virtue. Whereas the useful applies to such as have nothing desirable in themselves, but are desired only as helpful to something further, as the taking of bitter medicine; while the virtuous is predicated of such as are desirable in themselves. |
| Ad tertium dicendum quod bonum non dividitur in ista tria sicut univocum aequaliter de his praedicatum, sed sicut analogum, quod praedicatur secundum prius et posterius. Per prius enim praedicatur de honesto; et secundario de delectabili; tertio de utili. | Reply to Objection 3: Goodness is not divided into these three as something univocal to be predicated equally of them all; but as something analogical to be predicated of them according to priority and posteriority. Hence it is predicated chiefly of the virtuous; then of the pleasant; and lastly of the useful. |